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The Painted Elk Hide Reflects a Thematic Shift From Mesoamerican Art in Its

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Polytheistic religious groups in pre-Christian Roman territories or modernistic religious movement

Paganism (from classical Latin pāgānus "rural", "rustic", afterwards "noncombatant") is a term kickoff used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who expert polytheism[1] or indigenous religions other than Judaism. In the time of the Roman empire, individuals fell into the pagan class either because they were increasingly rural and provincial relative to the Christian population, or because they were not milites Christi (soldiers of Christ).[2] [iii] Alternative terms in Christian texts were hellene, gentile, and infidel.[1] Ritual sacrifice was an integral part of ancient Graeco-Roman religion[4] and was regarded as an indication of whether a person was pagan or Christian.[4] Paganism has broadly connoted the "religion of the peasantry".[i] [v]

During and after the Middle Ages, the term paganism was applied to whatsoever not-Christian religion, and the term presumed a belief in false god(s).[6] [seven] The origin of the application of the term pagan to polytheism is debated.[eight] In the 19th century, paganism was adopted equally a cocky-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the ancient world. In the 20th century, information technology came to exist applied equally a self-descriptor by practitioners of Modern Paganism, Neopagan movements and Polytheistic reconstructionists. Modern pagan traditions often incorporate beliefs or practices, such as nature worship, that are dissimilar from those in the largest earth religions.[nine] [ten]

Contemporary knowledge of old pagan religions and beliefs comes from several sources, including anthropological field research records, the evidence of archaeological artifacts, and the historical accounts of ancient writers regarding cultures known to Classical artifact. About modern pagan religions existing today (Modern or Neopaganism[11] [12]) limited a world view that is pantheistic, panentheistic, polytheistic or animistic, but some are monotheistic.[thirteen]

Nomenclature and etymology [edit]

Pagan [edit]

Farther information: Pagus

It is crucial to stress correct from the kickoff that until the 20th century, people did not telephone call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practised. The notion of paganism, every bit it is generally understood today, was created by the early on Christian Church building. It was a label that Christians practical to others, ane of the antitheses that were primal to the process of Christian self-definition. Equally such, throughout history it was generally used in a derogatory sense.

—Owen Davies, Paganism: A Very Short Introduction, 2011[8]

The term infidel is derived from Late Latin paganus , revived during the Renaissance. Itself deriving from classical Latin pagus which originally meant 'region delimited by markers', paganus had also come up to mean 'of or relating to the countryside', 'land dweller', 'villager'; by extension, 'rustic', 'unlearned', 'yokel', 'bumpkin'; in Roman armed forces jargon, 'non-combatant', 'civilian', 'unskilled soldier'. It is related to pangere ('to fasten', 'to gear up or affix') and ultimately comes from Proto-Indo-European *pag- ('to fix' in the aforementioned sense).[14]

The adoption of paganus past the Latin Christians as an all-embracing, pejorative term for polytheists represents an unforeseen and singularly long-lasting victory, within a religious group, of a word of Latin slang originally devoid of religious meaning. The development occurred simply in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church. Elsewhere, Hellene or gentile (ethnikos) remained the give-and-take for pagan; and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace.

Medieval writers often causeless that paganus as a religious term was a event of the conversion patterns during the Christianization of Europe, where people in towns and cities were converted more easily than those in remote regions, where old ways tended to remain. Yet, this idea has multiple bug. Starting time, the discussion'south usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that catamenia in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centred on cities. The concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans during Early on Christianity. Third, unlike words such every bit rusticitas, paganus had non still fully acquired the meanings (of uncultured backwardness) used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans.[xvi]

Paganus more probable caused its meaning in Christian nomenclature via Roman military jargon (encounter to a higher place). Early Christians adopted armed services motifs and saw themselves as Milites Christi (soldiers of Christ).[14] [16] A adept example of Christians still using paganus in a military machine context rather than religious is in Tertullian's De Corona Militis Xi.V, where the Christian is referred to equally paganus (civilian): [xvi]

Apud hunc [Christum] tam miles est paganus fidelis quam paganus est miles fidelis. [17] With Him [Christ] the true-blue citizen is a soldier, just every bit the true-blue soldier is a denizen.[eighteen]

Paganus acquired its religious connotations by the mid-4th century.[16] As early as the 5th century, paganos was metaphorically used to denote persons outside the bounds of the Christian customs. Post-obit the sack of Rome by the Visigoths just over fifteen years after the Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I,[19] murmurs began to spread that the old gods had taken greater intendance of the city than the Christian God. In response, Augustine of Hippo wrote De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos ('The City of God against the Pagans'). In information technology, he assorted the fallen "city of Homo" to the "city of God" of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the foreign invaders were "non of the city" or "rural".[20] [21] [22]

The term pagan is not attested in the English linguistic communication until the 17th century.[23] In add-on to pagan and heretic, it was used as one of several pejorative Christian counterparts to goy ( גוי / נכרי ) every bit used in Judaism, and to kafir ( كافر , 'unbeliever') and mushrik ( مشرك , 'idolater') every bit in Islam.[24]

Hellene [edit]

In the Latin-speaking Western Roman Empire of the newly Christianizing Roman Empire, Koine Greek became associated with the traditional polytheistic religion of Ancient Greece, and regarded as a foreign language (lingua peregrina) in the west.[25] By the latter half of the quaternary century in the Greek-speaking Eastern Empire, pagans were—paradoxically—virtually normally chosen Hellenes ( Ἕλληνες , lit. 'Greeks'). The give-and-take most entirely ceased being used in a cultural sense.[26] [27] It retained that significant for roughly the first millennium of Christianity.

This was influenced by Christianity's early members, who were Jewish. The Jews of the time distinguished themselves from foreigners according to religion rather than ethno-cultural standards, and early Jewish Christians would have done the aforementioned. Since Hellenic civilization was the dominant pagan culture in the Roman due east, they referred to pagans as Hellenes. Christianity inherited Jewish terminology for not-Jews and adjusted it in order to refer to non-Christians with whom they were in contact. This usage is recorded in the New Testament. In the Pauline epistles, Hellene is well-nigh always juxtaposed with Hebrew regardless of bodily ethnicities.[27]

The usage of Hellene equally a religious term was initially office of an exclusively Christian nomenclature, only some Pagans began to defiantly phone call themselves Hellenes. Other pagans even preferred the narrow meaning of the word from a broad cultural sphere to a more specific religious grouping. However, at that place were many Christians and pagans akin who strongly objected to the development of the terminology. The influential Archbishop of Constantinople Gregory of Nazianzus, for example, took offence at imperial efforts to suppress Hellenic civilization (peculiarly concerning spoken and written Greek) and he openly criticized the emperor.[26]

The growing religious stigmatization of Hellenism had a chilling upshot on Hellenic culture by the late quaternary century.[26]

Past belatedly antiquity, withal, it was possible to speak Greek as a primary language while not conceiving of oneself as a Hellene.[28] The long-established use of Greek both in and around the Eastern Roman Empire as a lingua franca ironically allowed information technology to instead go central in enabling the spread of Christianity—every bit indicated for example past the employ of Greek for the Epistles of Paul.[29] In the first half of the 5th century, Greek was the standard language in which bishops communicated,[30] and the Acta Conciliorum ("Acts of the Church Councils") were recorded originally in Greek and and so translated into other languages.[31]

Pagan [edit]

Pagan comes from Old English hæðen (non Christian or Jewish); cf. Old Norse heiðinn . This meaning for the term originated from Gothic haiþno (gentile woman) being used to translate Hellene[32] in Wulfila'south Bible, the beginning translation of the Bible into a Germanic linguistic communication. This may accept been influenced by the Greek and Latin terminology of the fourth dimension used for pagans. If so, it may be derived from Gothic haiþi (dwelling on the heath). Nevertheless, this is not attested. It may even be a borrowing of Greek ἔθνος ( ethnos ) via Armenian hethanos .[33]

The term has recently been revived in the forms Heathenry and Heathenism (oft only non always capitalized), equally alternative names for the Germanic neopagan move, adherents of which may cocky-place every bit Heathens.

Definition [edit]

It is perhaps misleading fifty-fifty to say that in that location was such a religion as paganism at the beginning of [the Common Era] ... It might be less confusing to say that the pagans, earlier their competition with Christianity, had no religion at all in the sense in which that word is commonly used today. They had no tradition of soapbox most ritual or religious matters (apart from philosophical argue or antiquarian treatise), no organized arrangement of beliefs to which they were asked to commit themselves, no authority-structure peculiar to the religious area, in a higher place all no commitment to a particular grouping of people or set of ideas other than their family and political context. If this is the right view of heathen life, it follows that we should await on paganism quite just every bit a faith invented in the course of the second to third centuries Advertising, in contest and interaction with Christians, Jews and others.

—J A North 1992, 187–88, [34]

Defining paganism is complex and problematic. Agreement the context of its associated terminology is of import.[35] Early Christians referred to the diverse array of cults around them as a single grouping for reasons of convenience and rhetoric.[36] While paganism mostly implies polytheism, the chief stardom between classical pagans and Christians was not one of monotheism versus polytheism, as non all pagans were strictly polytheist. Throughout history, many of them believed in a supreme deity. However, virtually such pagans believed in a class of subordinate gods/daimons—encounter henotheism—or divine emanations.[13] To Christians, the most important stardom was whether or non someone worshipped the one true God. Those who did not (polytheist, monotheist, or atheist) were outsiders to the Church building and thus considered pagan.[37] Similarly, classical pagans would have found information technology peculiar to distinguish groups past the number of deities followers venerate. They would have considered the priestly colleges (such as the College of Pontiffs or Epulones) and cult practices more than meaningful distinctions.[38]

Referring to paganism as pre-Christian ethnic religions is equally untenable. Non all historical pagan traditions were pre-Christian or indigenous to their places of worship.[35]

Owing to the history of its classification, paganism traditionally encompasses the collective pre- and non-Christian cultures in and around the classical world; including those of the Greco-Roman, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavic tribes.[39] However, modern parlance of folklorists and contemporary pagans in particular has extended the original iv millennia scope used by early on Christians to include similar religious traditions stretching far into prehistory.[40]

Perception [edit]

Paganism came to exist equated past Christians with a sense of hedonism, representing those who are sensual, materialistic, cocky-indulgent, unconcerned with the future, and uninterested in more than mainstream religions. Pagans were usually described within this worldly stereotype, especially among those drawing attending to what they perceived as the limitations of paganism.[41] Thus G. One thousand. Chesterton wrote: "The pagan ready out, with admirable sense, to relish himself. By the cease of his civilization he had discovered that a man cannot enjoy himself and go on to enjoy annihilation else."[42] In sharp contrast, Swinburne the poet would annotate on this same theme: "G hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown gray from thy breath; We have drunken of things Lethean, and fed on the fullness of death."[43]

Ethnocentrism [edit]

Recently, the ethnocentric and moral absolutist origins of the common usage of the term pagan have been acknowledged,[44] [45] with scholar David Petts noting how, with particular reference to Christianity, "...local religions are defined in opposition to privileged 'world religions'; they go everything that world religions are not, rather than being explored as a subject in their own right."[46] In improver, Petts notes how various spiritual, religious, and metaphysical ideas branded every bit "pagan" from diverse cultures were studied in opposition to Abrahamism in early anthropology, a binary he links to ethnocentrism and colonialism.[47]

History [edit]

Pre-History [edit]

  • Prehistoric religion
    • Paleolithic religion

Statuary Age to Early Iron Historic period [edit]

  • Religions of the ancient Near East
    • Ancient Egyptian organized religion
    • Ancient Semitic faith
    • Ancient Iranian religion
    • Ancient Mesopotamian religion

Classical antiquity [edit]

Ludwig Feuerbach defined the paganism of classical antiquity, which he termed Heidentum ('heathenry') as "the unity of religion and politics, of spirit and nature, of god and man",[48] qualified past the observation that human in the heathen view is always defined by ethnicity, i.due east. Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Norse etc., so that each pagan tradition is also a national tradition. Modern historians define paganism instead as the aggregate of cult acts, ready inside a borough rather than a national context, without a written creed or sense of orthodoxy.[49]

Belatedly Antiquity and Christianization [edit]

The developments in the religious thought of the far-flung Roman Empire during Late Antiquity need to be addressed separately, considering this is the context in which Early Christianity itself adult every bit 1 of several monotheistic cults, and it was in this period that the concept of pagan developed in the get-go place. As Christianity emerged from Second Temple Judaism and Hellenistic Judaism, it stood in contest with other religions advocating pagan monotheism, including the cults of Dionysus,[50] Neoplatonism, Mithraism, Gnosticism, and Manichaeanism.[ citation needed ] Dionysus in particular exhibits pregnant parallels with Christ, so that numerous scholars have concluded that the recasting of Jesus the wandering rabbi into the image of Christ the Logos, the divine saviour, reflects the cult of Dionysus direct. They betoken to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ;[51] [52] Wick argues that the use of wine symbolism in the Gospel of John, including the story of the Union at Cana at which Jesus turns water into wine, was intended to testify Jesus as superior to Dionysus.[53] The scene in The Bacchae wherein Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of challenge divinity is compared to the New Attestation scene of Jesus being interrogated by Pontius Pilate.[53] [54] [55]

Islam in Arabia [edit]

Arabic paganism gradually disappeared during prophet Muhammad's era through Islamization.[56] [57] The sacred months of the Arab pagans were the 1st, seventh, 11th and 12th months of the Islamic calendar.[58] Subsequently Muhammad had conquered Mecca he set out to catechumen the pagans.[59] [60] [61] One of the last military campaigns that Muhammad ordered against the Arab pagans was the Demolition of Dhul Khalasa. It occurred in Apr and May 632 AD, in 10AH of the Islamic Calendar. Dhul Khalasa is referred to as both an idol and a temple, and it was known by some as the Ka'ba of Yemen, built and worshipped by infidel tribes.[62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [lxx]

Early on Modern period [edit]

Involvement in pagan traditions was first revived during the Renaissance, when Renaissance magic was practiced as a revival of Greco-Roman magic. In the 17th century, the description of paganism turned from a theological attribute to an ethnological ane, and religions began to be understood as part of the indigenous identities of peoples, and the report of the religions of and then-called primitive peoples triggered questions as to the ultimate historical origin of faith. Thus, Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc saw the pagan religions of Africa of his twenty-four hour period as relics that were in principle capable of shedding lite on the historical paganism of Classical Antiquity.[71]

Romanticism [edit]

Great God! I'd rather be
A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;
And so might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
Take glimpses that would brand me less forlorn;
Accept sight of Proteus rising from the sea;
Or hear old Triton accident his wreathèd horn.

Paganism resurfaces as a topic of fascination in 18th to 19th-century Romanticism, in particular in the context of the literary Celtic and Viking revivals, which portrayed historical Celtic and Germanic polytheists equally noble savages.

The 19th century also saw much scholarly interest in the reconstruction of pagan mythology from folklore or fairy tales. This was notably attempted past the Brothers Grimm, especially Jacob Grimm in his Teutonic Mythology, and Elias Lönnrot with the compilation of the Kalevala. The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a land were particularly representative of it, to the fail of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, and the Englishman Joseph Jacobs.[72]

Romanticist interest in non-classical antiquity coincided with the rise of Romantic nationalism and the rise of the nation state in the context of the 1848 revolutions, leading to the creation of national epics and national myths for the diverse newly formed states. Pagan or folkloric topics were besides common in the musical nationalism of the flow.

Modern Paganism [edit]

Some megaliths are believed to have religious significance.

Children standing with The Lady of Cornwall in a neopagan ceremony in England

Neopagan handfasting ceremony at Avebury (Beltane 2005)

Modernistic Paganism, or Neopaganism, includes reconstructed religions such every bit Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism, Hellenism, Slavic Native Religion, Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, or heathenry, too as modern eclectic traditions such equally Wicca and its many offshoots, Neo-Druidism, and Discordianism.

Even so, there frequently exists a distinction or separation betwixt some polytheistic reconstructionists such equally Hellenism and revivalist neopagans similar Wiccans. The divide is over numerous issues such as the importance of accurate orthopraxy according to ancient sources available, the employ and concept of magic, which agenda to use and which holidays to observe, besides every bit the use of the term pagan itself.[73] [74] [75]

Many of the revivals, Wicca and Neo-Druidism in detail, have their roots in 19th century Romanticism and retain noticeable elements of occultism or Theosophy that were current then, setting them apart from historical rural ( paganus ) folk faith. Almost modern pagans, withal, believe in the divine grapheme of the natural earth and paganism is often described equally an Earth religion.[76]

There are a number of neopagan authors who have examined the relation of the 20th-century movements of polytheistic revival with historical polytheism on i mitt and contemporary traditions of folk religion on the other. Isaac Bonewits introduced a terminology to brand this stardom.[77]

Neopaganism
The overarching contemporary heathen revival movement which focuses on nature-revering/living, pre-Christian religions and/or other nature-based spiritual paths, and frequently incorporating gimmicky liberal values[ citation needed ]. This definition may include groups such as Wicca, Neo-Druidism, Heathenry, and Slavic Native Faith.

Paleopaganism
A retronym coined to contrast with Neopaganism, original polytheistic, nature-centered faiths, such equally the pre-Hellenistic Greek and pre-imperial Roman religion, pre-Migration menstruum Germanic paganism every bit described by Tacitus, or Celtic polytheism equally described past Julius Caesar.
Mesopaganism
A grouping, which is, or has been, significantly influenced by monotheistic, dualistic, or nontheistic worldviews, but has been able to maintain an independence of religious practices. This group includes ancient Americans also as Aboriginal Australians, Viking Age Norse paganism and New Age spirituality. Influences include: Spiritualism, and the many Afro-Diasporic faiths like Haitian Vodou, Santería and Espiritu religion. Isaac Bonewits includes British Traditional Wicca in this subdivision.

Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick in their A History of Pagan Europe (1995) classify pagan religions every bit characterized by the post-obit traits:

  • Polytheism: Pagan religions recognise a plurality of divine beings, which may or may not be considered aspects of an underlying unity (the soft and hard polytheism stardom).
  • Nature-based: Some pagan religions accept a concept of the divinity of nature, which they view every bit a manifestation of the divine, non as the fallen creation found in dualistic cosmology.
  • Sacred feminine: Some pagan religions recognize the female person divine principle, identified as the Goddess (every bit opposed to individual goddesses) beside or in place of the male divine principle as expressed in the Abrahamic God.[78]

In modern times, Heathen and Heathenry are increasingly used to refer to those branches of modern paganism inspired past the pre-Christian religions of the Germanic, Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon peoples.[79]

In Iceland, the members of Ásatrúarfélagið account for 0.four% of the total population,[80] which is only over a thousand people. In Lithuania, many people practice Romuva, a revived version of the pre-Christian religion of that land. Lithuania was amidst the concluding areas of Europe to be Christianized. Odinism has been established on a formal basis in Australia since at to the lowest degree the 1930s.[81]

Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe [edit]

  • Albanian mythology
  • Baltic mythology
  • Basque mythology
  • Celtic polytheism
  • Etruscan mythology
  • Finnic mythologies
  • Germanic paganism
  • Ancient Greek faith
  • Hungarian Native Faith
  • Minoan religion
  • Mari Native Religion
  • Mordvin Native Religion
  • Norse mythology
  • Religion in ancient Rome
  • Sámi shamanism
  • Scythian faith
  • Slavic paganism

See likewise [edit]

  • Animism
  • Astrotheology
  • Crypto-paganism
  • Dharmic religions
  • Eastward Asian religions
  • Eleusinian Mysteries
  • Henotheism
  • Jungian psychology
  • Kemetism
  • List of Pagans
  • Neopagan temples in Europe
  • Listing of Neopagan movements
  • List of religions and spiritual traditions
  • Myth and ritual
  • Naturalistic pantheism
  • Nature worship
  • Panentheism
  • Polytheism
  • Sentientism
  • Totemism

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ a b c Peter Brown (1999). "Pagan". In Glen Warren Bowersock; Peter Dark-brown; Oleg Grabar (eds.). Belatedly Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World . Harvard University Press. pp. 625–26. ISBN978-0-674-51173-vi.
  2. ^ J. J. O'Donnell (1977), Paganus: Evolution and Utilise, Classical Folia, 31: 163–69.
  3. ^ Augustine, Defined. Quaest. 83.
  4. ^ a b Jones, Christopher P. (2014). Between Heathen and Christian. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Printing. ISBN978-0-674-72520-1.
  5. ^ Owen Davies (2011). Paganism: A Very Brusk Introduction. Oxford Academy Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN978-0-xix-162001-0.
  6. ^ Kaarina Aitamurto (2016). Paganism, Traditionalism, Nationalism: Narratives of Russian Rodnoverie. Routledge. pp. 12–fifteen. ISBN978-1-317-08443-3.
  7. ^ Owen Davies (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. ane–half dozen, 70–83. ISBN978-0-xix-162001-0.
  8. ^ a b Davies, Owen (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Printing. ISBN 978-0191620010.
  9. ^ Paganism, Oxford Dictionary (2014)
  10. ^ Paganism, The Encyclopedia of Faith and Nature, Bron Taylor (2010), Oxford University Printing, ISBN 978-0199754670
  11. ^ Lewis, James R. (2004). The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements. Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN0-xix-514986-6.
  12. ^ Hanegraff, Wouter J. (1006). New Age Faith and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 84. ISBN90-04-10696-0.
  13. ^ a b Cameron 2011, pp. 28, 30.
  14. ^ a b Harper, Douglas. "pagan (northward.)". The Online Etymology Dictionary . Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  15. ^ Peter Brownish, in Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar, eds., Late Antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world, 1999, southward.5. Infidel.
  16. ^ a b c d Cameron 2011, pp. 14–15.
  17. ^ De Corona Militis Xi.V
  18. ^ Dues-Nicene Fathers 3, De Corona Xi
  19. ^ ""Theodosius I", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912".
  20. ^ "The City of God". Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite DVD, 2003.
  21. ^ Orosius Histories 1. Prol. "ui alieni a civitate dei..pagani vocantur."
  22. ^ C. Mohrmann, Vigiliae Christianae 6 (1952) 9ff; Oxford English Dictionary, (online) 2d Edition (1989)
  23. ^ The OED instances Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. Ii, "Affiliate XXI: Persecution of Heresy, State of the Church. Office 7" (1776): "The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of Paganism."
  24. ^ Eisenstadt, S.N. (1983). "Transcendental Visions – Other-Worldliness – and Its Transformations: Some More Comments on L. Dumont. Religion" 13:one–17, at p. three.
  25. ^ Augustine, Confessions 1.14.23; Moatii, "Translation, Migration, and Communication," p. 112.
  26. ^ a b c Cameron, Alan Thousand.; Long, Jacqueline; Sherry, Lee (1993). "2: Synesius of Cyrene; VI: The Dion". Barbarians and Politics at the Courtroom of Arcadius. Academy of California Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN978-0520065505.
  27. ^ a b Cameron 2011, pp. xvi–17.
  28. ^ Simon Swain, "Defending Hellenism: Philostratus, in Honor of Apollonius," in Apologetics, p. 173.
  29. ^ Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State, p. five.
  30. ^ Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, pp. 97–98.
  31. ^ Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, p. 98.
  32. ^ cf. Mark 7:26
  33. ^ Harper, Douglas. "heathen (north.)". The Online Etymology Dictionary . Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  34. ^ Cameron 2011, pp. 26–27.
  35. ^ a b Davies 2011, Defining paganism.
  36. ^ Cameron 2011, p. 26.
  37. ^ Cameron 2011, pp. 27, 31.
  38. ^ Cameron 2011, p. 29.
  39. ^ Cameron 2011, p. 28.
  40. ^ Davies 2011, Affiliate 1: The ancient world.
  41. ^ Antonio Virgili, Culti misterici ed orientali a Pompei, Roma, Gangemi, 2008
  42. ^ Heretics, K. Yard. Chesterton, 2007, Hendrickson Publishers Inc., p.88
  43. ^ 'Hymn to Proserpine'
  44. ^ Hanegraaff, Wouter (2016). "Reconstructing "Faith" from the Bottom Upward". Numen. 63 (5/six): 576–605. doi:x.1163/15685276-12341439. JSTOR 44505310.
  45. ^ Blumberg, Antonia (27 May 2016). "What Not To Say When You Run across Someone Who Is Infidel". Huffington Post. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
  46. ^ Petts, David (26 May 2011). Heathen and Christian: Religious Change in Early Medieval Europe. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 31. ISBN978-0-7156-3754-8.
  47. ^ Kourbage, Melanie. "Kourbage on Petts, 'Infidel and Christian: Religious Change in Early Medieval Europe'". Humanities and Social Sciences Online. H-German. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
  48. ^ cf. the ceremonious, natural and mythical theologies of Marcus Terentius Varro
  49. ^ A summary of the modern view is given in Robin Lane Play a joke on, Pagans and Christians 1989, pp. 31 ff.: "The mod emphasis on paganism's cult acts was too acknowledged by pagans themselves. Information technology shaped the manner they tried and tested Christians."
  50. ^ Due east. Kessler, Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus "two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneously in Nea Paphos during the fourth century C.E. [...] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos [...] represents the culmination of a Infidel iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; this Infidel motif was appropriated by early on Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Kid. Thus the mosaic helps to substantiate the existence of Heathen monotheism." [i]
  51. ^ Pausanias, Description of Hellenic republic 6. 26. 1–2
  52. ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 2. 34a
  53. ^ a b Wick, Peter (2004). "Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums". Biblica. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute. 85 (2): 179–98. Retrieved 10 Oct 2007.
  54. ^ Studies in Early Christology, by Martin Hengel, 2005, p. 331 (ISBN 0567042804)
  55. ^ Powell, Barry B., Classical Myth Second ed. With new translations of aboriginal texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998.
  56. ^ Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman Al (2005), The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet, Darussalam Publications, pp. 245–46, ISBN978-9960-899-55-viii
  57. ^ Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman, Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz' ii (Part 2): Al-Baqarah 142 to Al-Baqarah 252 2nd Edition, p. 139, MSA Publication Limited, 2009, ISBN 1861796765. (online)
  58. ^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar (Complimentary Version), p. 129
  59. ^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir, By Ibn Sa'd, Volume 2. Islamic republic of pakistan Historical Society. p. 380. ASIN B0007JAWMK.
  60. ^ Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur (2005), The Sealed Nectar, Darussalam Publications, p. 269, ISBN9798694145923
  61. ^ Mufti, M. Mukarram Ahmed (2007), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd, p. 103, ISBN978-81-261-2339-1
  62. ^ Robertson Smith, William (2010). Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. Forgotten Books. p. 297. ISBN978-1-4400-8379-ii.
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References [edit]

  • Cameron, Alan G. (2011). The Last Pagans of Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0199780914. OCLC 553365192.
  • Davies, Owen (2011). Paganism: A Very Brusk Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0191620010.
  • Hua, Yih-Fen. book review to: Maria Effinger / Cornelia Logemann / Ulrich Pfisterer (eds): Götterbilder und Götzendiener in der Frühen Neuzeit. Europas Blick auf fremde Religionen. In: sehepunkte thirteen (2013), Nr. 5 [15.05.2013], URL: http://world wide web.sehepunkte.de/2013/05/21410.html. (Book review in English).
  • Robert, P. & Scott, N. (1995). A History of Pagan Europe. New York, Barnes & Noble Books, ISBN 0-7607-1210-7.
  • York, Michael (2003). Pagan Theology: Paganism every bit a Globe Religion NYU Press, ISBN 0-8147-9708-3.

External links [edit]

nyberglucian1974.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganism

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